Since your other circuits are now switched, you have reversed the black wires. You must also eliminate the taped connection. Since your dimmer probably has wire leads instead of screw terminals, this could be easy. The thing to ensure is if you cut the yellow wire back to where it was taped, will it still be long enough? It should be if the dimmer has wire leads. Also ensure there is enough room in the box for all the wires and the new dimmer, as it is larger than a standard switch, it's easier to run out of room.
If it all looks good, first turn off the power to the switch box. Mark the black wire now attached directly to the switch as power. This was originally taped to the yellow wire until you got mixed up. Remove it from the switch and straighten the wire end.
Remove and straighten the other black wire now taped to the yellow. This originally went directly to the switch. This goes to the light you want dimmed. Trim it so the exposed wire is the same length as the wire stripped for the dimmer lead. Attach it to one of the dimmer leads with a wire nut.
Cut the yellow wire back to where it was taped, leaving an appropriate length of exposed wire. Trim the insulation as needed so the new end is free of any insulation. Connect the power wire, the yellow wire, and the free dimmer lead together with another wire nut. Be sure the nut is big enough to accommodate three wires.
Ensure any ground wires are all connected together, but not to any other wiring.
Turn the dimmer up to full power, and turn it off if you can tell the difference. Restore power to the circuit. Turn off the dimmer if it's on. Ensure the other circuits are still powered. Enjoy your now dimmable light.
sounds like you probably have a 14-3 wire but the red wire may not be doing anything. The black wire should be across the switch and anything on the other side of the switch will go off and on with the switch. White wire shouldn't go across any switches. On receptacles, the black wire always goes to the brass screws and the white wire always goes to the silver screws. There are two ways to connect to a switch or receptacle with 14 gauge wire: you can push it in the holes in the back or you can connect it to the screws.
Best Answer
It might just be that when the wires shorted together and the breaker tripped, there is now some soot/debris on the conductors so they aren't making good contact to the switch terminals now. Clean the wire with some emery cloth / wire brush (WITH THE BREAKER OFF!) and try it again.
It's POSSIBLE that in making that short, you fried a wire deep in the wall, in which case it becomes a bigger job for an electrician.