Ledger for Exterior Stairs – Attach to Existing Wood or Remove and Add Ledger

I think the least invasive way to handle this is to add two more stingers, one right against the existing stairs(essentially just a nailer) and one out at the ultimate width of the new treads. This way you don't have to remove the old sub-treads/risers or change the height of your treads, which would cause you grief when you get to the top of your staircase. Once you've got your new stringers in just apply sub-treads and riser to match the existing construction and you're good to go. The bigger problem is that no matter how you construct it, the landing or the the lower staircase will have to be modified to make the intersection work properly. This illustration shows how the problem could be fixed by lengthening the landing and pushing the lower stairs out (assuming you can do this). You could accomplish the same effect by pushing the landing to the right but it looks like your landing is captured on that side in the pictures. Although this fixes the stairs the railing system will still have an unusual transition but it's not too bad depending on how far you need to extend your treads.

First, your question

how do I calculate what that new beam has to be given the existing joists and the desired post options?

This is a bit long winded, but it is how we figure it out accurately.

Figure out a design load per square foot (PSF), we typically use 40 PSF live load and 10 PSF dead load for floors and decks. In a simple span, the beam carries the load halfway to the next support or tributary width; in this case 5'. Multiply the PSF x the tributary width to get the pounds per lineal foot (PLF) on the beam, in this case 50 PSF x 5 Ft = 250 PLF. Then, using software or load tables find a beam that can carry that load based on the span of the beam; allowable loads reduce as the span increases. In your case this requires (3) 2x10 DF #2.

I typically use Forte for beam sizing instead of load tables.

For the post sizes, calculate the tributary load which, in simple spans, is the load halfway between supports. In your case, this would be half the beam length between post multiplied by PLF. For your center post that is 250 PLF x 11.5 FT = 2875 LB. Then, using load tables or calculations find a post that can support that load based on height and bracing of the column. Take into account bearing area of the 2x10 at about 625 PSI perpendicular to the grain for a required bearing area of 4.6 Sq. In. In your case a 4x4 is plenty.

Try a column load calculator here

For multiple span beams, cantilevers, and anything outside of "simple span" things are a little different. For this reason I typically use the beam sizing program.

If this is too intense, maybe just be guided by the following.

If I read correctly, you have deck joist spanning about 10' and on one end a single 2x10 "beam" or rim joist that the joist hang into that spans approximately 11'-6" between (3) 4x4 post.

Based on this, your deck joist are structurally OK although maxed out at a 40/10 load, but are deflecting (bending) a good amount giving part of the bouncy feel. You can add 2x6 or larger joist down the middle of the existing joist to firm things up, or just live with a safe bouncy deck.

The 2x10 is definitely undersized and should be addressed. It also contributes to the bounciness. The simplest solution to this is to add (2) intermediate post mid span reducing the span of the 2x10 to below 6'. OR beef up the 2x10 by adding (2) more 2x10's to it nailing 3 16D nails per foot per beam lamination would easily transfer the load between beams.

Finally, the 4x4 post are more than adequate to support a load of 2,875lb. An 8'-0" length of 4x4 can support over 6,000 lb in wet service.

We applied over 10,000lb to a 7' 4x4 in jacking up a floor with no indication of possible buckling; we were compression limited on the member being jacked.