Learn English – object or adverb

You are correct in believing that preclude requires a direct object. However, the example sentence is still correct, because here preclude has been put into the passive voice. You wrote:

A man is precluded from all women except his wife.

This is equivalent to:

[Society] precludes a man from all women except his wife.

In this example it's quite clear that the object of preclude is a man, as expected. In the first example the direct object has been made the subject, as normal for passive constructions.

What is unusual about the first sentence is the fact that from is taking an ordinary noun as its object, while the normal idiom requires that the object of from be a verbal noun of some sort. So either of the following variants would be preferable:

A man is precluded from sleeping with all women except his wife. (Using the participle sleeping.)

A man is precluded from copulation with all women except his wife. (Using the abstract noun copulation.)

To get all linguisticsy about it, we can talk about the generalization of how verbs work. In traditional grammar, we talk about verbs having subjects and objects and whether they are transitive or intransitive. If we generalize this, we can talk about verbs being a kind of function that takes arguments, where subjects and objects are examples of kinds of argument verbs can take. The number of arguments a verb takes is called its valency. Intransitive verbs are monovalent, taking just one argument, the subject. Transitive verbs are divalent, taking two arguments, the subject and the object. There are more esoteric types like avalent verbs like rain which really take no argument (that is, the dummy pronoun it in “it’s raining” doesn’t refer to anything and so is not an argument, and is just the way English syntax forces all verbs to have a subject even if they are avalent). And put, the word from the original question, is trivalent, requiring not just a subject and an object, but also a location.

The different kinds of arguments a verb takes are called thematic relations, and have names like agent, experiencer, theme, patient, and location (see the Wikipedia article for definitions of all the different kinds of relations). Many verbs can take many different kinds of thematic relations as arguments, and the different combinations of arguments that a verb can take are called its subcategorization frame. The specific thematic relations that a particular verb requires in its subcategorization frames are called its theta roles, and verbs are said to assign theta roles. The verb put is exceptional in that its subcategorization frame assign three theta roles, including a location argument.