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The Beholder is one of the games most iconic monsters. It is on the title of the Fifth Edition Monster Manual. It has spawned a whole collection of creatures, including undead Death Tyrants, Gazers, and so on. It is unique and memorable — a floating sphere with eyestalks that shoot rays of magical effects. But where did that come from? Is there any precedent in literature, and how did that bizarre creature become part of the game?
There were originally six spell levels in D&D's first version. OD&D as published was related to Chainmail, and the Chainmail fantasy supplement. (See Forward to Men and Magic, E. Gary Gygax, dated 1 November 1973; Chainmail, 3rd Edition, Gygax & Perren, TSR). The spell levels expanded into nine spell levels in the first OD&D supplement, Greyhawk. (TSR, 1975)
Because there are many legendary and authored systems of magic, many questions about the system of magic used in D&D are continually raised. Magic in CHAINMAIL was fairly brief ... limited to the concept of table top miniatures battles ... a somewhat different concept of magic had to be devised to employ with the D&D campaign in order to make it all work.
(E.Gary Gygax, Strategic Review, April 1976, p. 3-4, The Dungeons and Dragons Magic System (extract)
The origin of what became spell level is found in the Chainmail optional rule for spell complexity1. (p. 33, Chainmail). This was a way to add uncertainty to applying magic to a miniatures table top battle based on the power of the magic user using the spell, and the power of the spell itself.
About spells: there were originally 16 listed. Fireball and lightning bolt in Chainmail were at will missile attacks (p. 31) usable by magic-users. (See Table at the bottom).
The Vancian magic system is explained here. Both the power and complexity of magic are reflected in this original model for how magic works in D&D. The spell complexity rule looks like an early adaptation of the Vancian Magic concept preferred by Gary Gygax: magic is both powerful and risky to use.
Spell Complexity (Optional): Each listed spell has a complexity value, and this value indicates how difficult it is to use such spell. Wizards can more easily employ any value of spell than can Sorcerers, Sorcerers are more able than Warlocks, etc. In addition, there may be a delay in the effect of the spell, or it may be totally negated due to some minor error or distraction. The table below gives the scores necessary for immediate, deferred (1 turn), and negated spell effects by the various levels of magic-users.
(Note that in the quote above, "Wizard", "Sorcerer", and "Warlock" are names for different levels for the same magic-user class, rather than the separate classes we are now familiar with.)
The Spell Complexity table provided a matrix comparing complexity value (1 to 6; later spell level in D&D, see Table at the bottom) matched against the magic-user power rating (later expressed as levels in D&D).
Magic-user power levels go, in ascending order, from Seer to Wizard (Chainmail, p. 32 & 33).
\begin{array}{r|ccc} \text{Magic User} & \text{# of spells} & \text{Morale Rating} & \text{Point Value} & \text{(D&D Level)}\\ \hline \text{Wizard} & 6-7 & 50 & 100 & 11 \\ \text{Sorcerer} & 5 & 40 & 90 & 9 \\ \text{Warlock} & 4 & 30 & 80 & 8 \\ \text{Magician} & 3 & 25 & 70 & 6 \\ \text{Seer} & 1 & 20 & 50 & 2 \\ \end{array}
Note: the synonyms for "A magic using person" were not classes (as they'd become in later editions of D&D); they were descriptions of comparative power of the basic class -- magic-user -- that in time carried over into D&D.
We'll use Cloudkill and Haste (p. 32, Chainmail) to illustrate (inches is used based on the scale for table top battles in this game).
A die roll (2d6) determined whether or not the spell was immediately effective(I), delayed(D), or negated(N). ("Negated" morphed into the saving throw in D&D). These were listed in the matrix as I/D/N.
Cloudkill: A gaseous cloud of poisonous vapors which kill all men, orcs, dwarves, and the like when it contacts them. Cloud size is 3" deep by 6" wide by 3" high. It stays along the ground, moving away from the magic-user who casts it at the rate of 6" per turn. It will drift at random if he is not concentrating on it. (Complexity 5)
The matrix showed that for a Warlock casting Cloudkill the I/D/N was 10/9/7 for a complexity 5 spell. A roll of 10 or better provided immediate effect on his target; a 9 or 8 provided a delayed effect (1 turn delay); a roll of 7 or less negated the spell. (Fizzle!) The result for a Sorcerer was 9/8/6: 7 or 8 yielded a delayed effect, a 9 or higher an immediate effect, but a 6 or less was a failure.
- Haste: A spell which speeds the movement of up to 20 figures by 50% for three turns. (Complexity 3)
The Warlock's result would be 8/7/5, and the Sorcerer's 7/6/4, as above, for I/D/N.
Comment on the number of Spells and point values: the number of spells usable was based on a battle fought out on the table top during the game, not the "game day" (or whatever it took to prepare spells again) that it became in D&D. The power rating of the magic user determined both the number of spells he is able to use and the opportunity cost in choosing a powerful wizard (or a timid Seer) when spending from the point budget for building your whole army for the table top miniatures battle.
While many things changed in the transition to the new game style (which included the use of a d20 saving throw versus spells), the level/complexity established a way to use magic while being mindful of the cost versus benefit for using more powerful magic. It also accounts for possible failure in battle based on how good your magic user was. (An early version of 3.x/5e's spell DC?) This choice was analogous to spending points on levies (cheap) versus elite (expensive) troops in that same miniatures battle.
Spell complexity became spell level as D&D grew out of the Chainmail Fantasy supplement via play and play testing in the Twin Cities area and Lake Geneva in the early 1970's.
On page 21 of Men and Magic (OD&D, Book I, TSR, 1974) you find Cloudkill as a 5th level spell, and Haste as a 3rd level spell. While not everything ported over one-to-one since D&D was a new form of game, most spells did. (See Table below).
With that basis established in the original three books, complexity becoming level, the expanded spell list in Greyhawk introduced new and more powerful spells of levels 7 through 9 (many of which had no saving throw). The growth of the game and play experiences by the game's developers informed this additional material, which used and expanded upon the previous convention on how to rate spell power.
Based on the editorial comments in both Eldritch Wizardry and Gods, Demigods and Heroes (Supplements 3 and 4 to OD&D) and articles in Strategic Review, it is clear that the game's designers found that they didn't need to make magic more powerful. If you consider how powerful time stop and wish are as 9th level spells, I think you can see their point.
\begin{array}{r|ccc} \text{Chainmail Spell} & \text{Complexity} & \text{D&D Level} & \text{OD&D Book} \\{} & \text{} & \text{} & \text{*New Spell} \\ \hline \text{Phantasmal Forces} & 2 & 2 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Darkness} & 1 & 2 & \text{Greyhawk} \\ \text{} & & & \text{*Darkness 5'r} \\ \text{Wizard Light} & 1 & 1 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{} & & & \text{*Light Spell} \\ \text{Detection} & 2 & 2 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{} & & & \text{*Detect Invisibility} \\ \text{Concealment} & 3 & 3 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{} & & & \text{*Invisibility} \\ \text{Conjure Elemental} & 5 & 5 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Moving Terrain} & 6 & 6 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{} & & & \text{Move Earth*} \\ \text{Prot. from Evil: 12" rad} & 3 & 3 & \text{Men and Magic 10'r} \\ \text{Levitate 2} & 2 & 2 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Slowness} & 3 & 3 & \text{Men and Magic (*Slow)} \\ \text{Haste} & 3 & 3 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Polymorph} & 4 & 4 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Confusion} & 4 & 4 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Hallucinatory Terrain} & 4 & 4 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Cloudkill} & 5 & 5 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \text{Anti-Magic Shell} & 6 & 6 & \text{Men and Magic} \\ \end{array}
Note: Both fireball and lightning bolt were changed from at-will missile attacks into 3rd level spells in D&D (Men and Magic p.21).
Thanks to @Scott's comment, the following is appended:
When D&D was reissued in the d20 system (D&D 3.0 and later 3.5) a feature that resembles the original Chainmail approach to magic based on complexity was included. Epic spells, like the spells used in Chainmail, had a chance of failure when cast based on complexity of spell and the spellcaster's effectiveness as measured by the games comparative power rating method.
...successfully casting an epic spell isn't assured. The caster's Spellcraft skill modified is vital for casting an epic spell ... a spell caster makes a Spellcraft check against the epic spell's spellcraft DC.
This is similar to the I/D/N die roll based on magic user power level versus spell complexity, although it is far more detailed and designed for role playing adventurers versus table top miniatures battles.
1 There seems to have been some overlap between Chainmail's editions updating, and D&D's development. According to this post at the odd74 boards, Chainmail's 3rd edition was the first to have spell complexity, and it was not in the first two editions of the game. OD&D was published in early 1974, while Chainmail edition 3 was published after that. That temporal relationship renders this answer at least partially incorrect as it is based on the printed edition of Chainmail that I own, which is 3rd edition. It is difficult to tell when the design decision was made for Chainmail, and when it was made for OD&D, and which preceded the other. It may well be that the decision to categorize spells was made for D&D and back filled into Chainmail's 3rd edition.
From the 3.5E Sourcebook Lords of Madness
In theory, a beholder becomes increasingly frail as it progresses beyond its ninetieth year. By the age of one hundred, its eyestalks begin to lose their powers and wither away. Only rarely do beholders live past the age of one hundred twenty. In practice, though, a beholder cunning and strong enough to survive attacks from powerful adventurers and other beholders finds a way to extend its lifespan with magic. If a beholder can stave off aging, it continues to grow slowly in size. Stories persist of immense beholders several hundred years old and nearly 20 feet in diameter.
Best Answer
Terry Kuntz invented the Beholder from scratch
There is no individual literary source or precedent. "Terry" (Theron O.) Kuntz was the younger brother of Rob Kuntz and one of the players in the original playtest campaign in Castle Greyhawk. He invented the creature as an original creation. This is well documented by multiple statements by Gary Gygax:
Terry joined shortly after the start of the campaign according Gary:
This would put the creation of the beholder a couple of days and two months after the original D&D playtesting in the Greyhawk Castle dungeon started (which was sometime between late February and early April, 1973), so at the latest around July, 1973.
The one question that remains is: we know Gary got the beholder from Terry Kuntz, but Gary states he does not know where Terry got the idea from (although he in the other quotes says he believes it was his original idea). Thankfully, Terry Kuntz went on record about this himself.
Terry Kuntz Interview
Terry gave an interview published in Casus Belli #23 in September 2017, in which he details how he came up with the creature (excerpts translated from original French):
The beholder was first published in the Greyhawk supplement to OD&D
The beholder was not part of the monster roster of the initial published rules for D&D (the "brown box" or later "white box" rules published in early 1974), even though it must already have been played by then in the campaign. It first appeared in Supplement 1 - Greyhawk, published in 1976, where it graced the cover (even if it looked less impressive back then then on today's Monster Manual).
with the following description:
And the following Correction published in a later version:
According to the Monster reference table on p. 33, only a single one is encountered, with AC 4/2, 3" move, Special Hit Dice, 90% in lair, and Treasure Type I (treasure) F (magic).
Tim Kask, in one of his Curmudgeon in the Cellar podcasts confirmed that back then, it was not unusual to modify the Beholder, changing the detailed function of the individual eyes and rays, in line with Terry's statement above of letting the DM modify the eyes as they saw fit.